{"id":7043,"date":"2023-05-11T09:18:32","date_gmt":"2023-05-11T07:18:32","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/?p=7043"},"modified":"2024-12-30T21:51:59","modified_gmt":"2024-12-30T20:51:59","slug":"labels","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/labels\/","title":{"rendered":"The pros and cons of labelling animal behaviour."},"content":{"rendered":"\n<p>Many animal behaviour consultants abhor labels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>They consider them not just pointless, but disastrous, and many of them wouldn\u2019t be caught dead using labels. &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>You might think I\u2019m exaggerating for dramatic effect, and yes, I do have a penchant for hyperbole so it is entirely possible\u2026 but sometimes I do wonder.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>As an ethologist, I had merrily been using labels for decades without even realizing that they <em>could<\/em> be problematic. It was not until I started hanging out with behaviour analysts that it was pointed out to me.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>I had two main reactions to that insight:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Wow, it\u2019s really useful to realize that labels can be very detrimental!<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Wow, some people really don\u2019t seem to realize how useful labels <em>can<\/em> be!<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>When are labels useful? Well, as is the case with literally everything related to animals and their behaviour, it depends on the context.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Labels are sometimes useful, sometimes irrelevant, and sometimes harmful.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>I can think of three useful types of label, and one label type that is harmful. And yet, the harmful labels are getting all the attention!<\/p>\n\n\n\n<!--more-->\n\n\n\n<p>Hence, this blog post. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And I realize that I might have lost some readers already, wondering what \u201cusing labels\u201d is all about and why it could potentially be problematic to use them. Or not.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So let\u2019s start with some useful labels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">How do ethologists use <em>labels<\/em>?<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>As ethologists, we observe animals to figure out what they\u2019re doing. We might be trying to get a handle on the activity budget of capuchin monkeys, for instance \u2013 what a typical day looks like, behaviour-wise.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-scaled.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"686\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-1024x686.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7044\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-1024x686.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-300x201.jpg 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-768x515.jpg 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-1536x1029.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/binocularing-2048x1372.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Ethologists might be crouching in the rain forest, binocularing up at a group of wild capuchins semi-hidden by vegetation, all the while getting eaten by mosquitoes and developing a spectacular neck pain.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>So, say you\u2019re the one looking at the monkeys, and you need to somehow take notes on what they\u2019re doing, perhaps by whispering a continuous narrative onto a recorder, or perhaps by jotting down what they happen to be doing exactly every five minutes, or whether a specific behaviour was seen within the last 10-minute interval. There are different ways of collecting behavioural data \u2013 but we typically end up using some type of shorthand to describe a behaviour, or a cluster of behaviours. All the while trying to ignore the neck pain and the buzzing of the mosquitoes, distracted by thoughts on whether that malaria prophylaxis regime is still up to date\u2026<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In ethology, we call these clusters of behaviours <em>behavioural systems.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And essentially, <em>behavioural systems are labels.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"564\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables-1024x564.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7046\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables-1024x564.png 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables-300x165.png 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables-768x423.png 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables-1536x847.png 1536w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/ethological-lables-2048x1129.png 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Some behavioural systems (= labels) that might be useful when doing ethological studies.<\/em> <em>For those of my readers not familiar with the terms: \u201daffiliative\u201d is a label involving all kinds of pro-social, friendly behaviour. \u201dAgonistic\u201d is a label covering aggression and dominance-related behaviours on the whole scale from subtle submissive behaviours via low-level status displays to full-on physical attack. \u201cForaging\u201d involves all manner of food-getting behaviour. And self-maintenance, well\u2026 that might be self-preening, scratching, and bum-wiping, for instance.&nbsp;<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>Note that these clusters of behaviours, these behavioural systems (labels!) won\u2019t be haphazard and made up in the moment, but rather chosen from some sort of ethogram, from more or less extensive lists of well-defined and species-specific responses.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Affiliative (pro-social) behaviour, for example, might involve the sub-categories \u201cplay\u201d, \u201cmutual grooming\u201d, \u201cparenting behaviour\u201d and \u201csexual behaviour\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And within each of these sub-categories we might find a number of specific responses. \u201cPlay\u201d for instance, might include a number of play vocalizations, meta signals (species-specific play invitations), chasing, changing directions, frolicking, lunging, pouncing, wrestling and biting different body parts. Also, we might note who is doing the chasing, pouncing, biting, and whether biting occurred to a neck or a limb \u2013 and who is getting chased, pounced, bitten, as well as the location of the bite \u2013 and how and when these roles are reversed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>But when we\u2019re standing there in an awkward position, staring at the monkeys and itching our fresh mosquito bites, we might not care whether the animal was <em>lunging<\/em> or <em>pouncing or biting the left arm<\/em>, and instead we\u2019ll simply note the sub-category, or even the behavioural system that we\u2019re interested in. We might note that they\u2019re <em>playing<\/em>, or <em>affiliating<\/em>, for instance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Once we summarize our findings, we might be able to say things like: among tufted capuchin monkeys, juvenile males spend 14,6% of their time playing, whereas juvenile females only play 7,1% of the time (and in case you\u2019re wondering, yes &#8211; these are real data).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In other words, <em>in ethology it is part of the job description to use labels<\/em> \u2013 but these labels will typically be a shorthand description of a cluster of well-defined responses shown in certain contexts and with similar function.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"483\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels-1024x483.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7047\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels-1024x483.png 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels-300x142.png 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels-768x362.png 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels-1536x725.png 1536w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/labels-and-sub-labels-2048x967.png 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>This partial canine ethogram is a rough draft prepared by yours truly (and for full disclosure, I have never studied canines); not sure how relevant all these responses would be for a real ethological observation, nor if some responses or response classes are missing. Doesn\u2019t matter &#8211; it\u2019s the principle of nested categorization, sub-categories and sub-sub-categories, labels within labels, that I\u2019m trying to illustrate. Note that the subcategories groom, parenting and sex also include sub-sub-categories, not shown here. Note also that all that categorization is built from <strong>verbs<\/strong> in the bottom rows. <\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>People on the Behaviour Analytical side sometimes disparagingly refer to the ethological perspective as etho-babble, suggesting that the labels ethologists use are unfalsifiable, and therefore of no value.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Not only do I disagree with that conclusion, I would go as far as to say that if we were to discuss activity budgets <em>without using labels<\/em>, we would get a list of thousands of well-defined responses of varying frequency, and seeing any patterns among those behaviours might be really difficult, except perhaps that we might note that <em>chasing<\/em> is often, but not always, followed by <em>pouncing<\/em>. In other words, we would likely notice that behaviours occur in clusters, but since we\u2019re not labelling those clusters, I would argue that it would be difficult to make sense of the data.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It would be hard to see the forest for all the trees, as it were.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, in the field of ethology, we use labels to make sense of behaviour. We use labels to simplify, find important patterns and summarize. A few examples:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Abnormal behaviour is typically diminished when we scatterfeed food to captive monkeys rather than offering food in bowls.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Kittens who receive positive human interaction more than 60 minutes per day between the ages of 2-8 weeks become more affiliative as adults than if they receive less than 15 minutes of human interaction.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>In these examples, \u201cabnormal behaviour\u201d, \u201cpositive human interaction\u201d and \u201caffiliative\u201d are labels \u2013 and those labels are useful. We can use the labels to quickly identify areas within animals\u2019 behavioural profiles where we can do interventions that will improve their quality of life.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Without those labels, we would have a haystack of behavioural observations but no obvious way of making sense of them.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, if labels can be this useful, where does the stark aversion amongst behaviour consultants to use them come from?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Seems to me that the problem is multi-faceted, and there are at least four potential pitfalls when labelling behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For starters, the labels that non-ethologists use (and the ones that I think behaviour analysts primarily are exposed to) are typically not based on a previously agreed-upon ethogram made up by <em>verbs<\/em>, but rather, they\u2019re often <em>adjectives<\/em> with negative connotations, like for instance \u201cstubborn\u201d, \u201clazy\u201d, or \u201cstupid\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Problem one: Lack of Clear Definitions<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>One of the most obvious problems with labels is that different people interpret them differently.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>When asked to describe what types of behaviours \u201cstubborn\u201d, \u201clazy\u201d or \u201cstupid\u201d individuals would show, we might get as many answers as the number of people we asked.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In other words<em>, people don\u2019t agree on what those labels mean.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>The connection has been lost between the label and the actual observable behaviours \u2013 not to mention the function and context of those behaviours.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If someone says \u201dhe\u2019s dominant\u201d \u2013 for them that might mean that their dog walks through the door first.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And here I\u2019ll just have to make a <s>short<\/s> digression, because this has been bothering me for some time.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\" id=\"dominance\">Digression on the topic of dominance<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>In ethology, the label \u201cdominant\u201d refers to <em>an individual who has priority of access to resources relative to another, well-known individual. <\/em>This is an observable and measurable phenomenon, it\u2019s not a personality trait and has absolutely nothing to do with whoever walks through the door first.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>However, many lay people don\u2019t use this <em>ethological<\/em> definition when it comes to animals, but rather the <em>sociological<\/em> definition of the label \u201cdominant\u201d \u2013 which refers to <em>an individual (human) controlling the behaviour of another individual (also human).<\/em> And they use this as an excuse to control the behaviour of their animals, often using force.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Let me spell it out: dominance in a group of animals is primarily about priority of access to resources, not controlling the behaviours of others. In fact, it\u2019s often the subordinate individuals in a group that maintains the hierarchy by unobtrusively moving aside when the dominant individual approaches, in order to avoid escalation or conflict. In ethology, we call this <em>unprovoked submission<\/em> or <em>displacement behaviour<\/em> (since it\u2019s about being displaced from one location to another &#8211; and yes, it\u2019s a confusing label because displacement behaviour can also refer to certain stress-related behaviour such as self-preening).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-embed is-type-video is-provider-vimeo wp-block-embed-vimeo wp-embed-aspect-16-9 wp-has-aspect-ratio\"><div class=\"wp-block-embed__wrapper\">\n<iframe loading=\"lazy\" src=\"https:\/\/player.vimeo.com\/video\/825736748?dnt=1&amp;app_id=122963\" width=\"580\" height=\"326\" frameborder=\"0\" allow=\"autoplay; fullscreen; picture-in-picture; clipboard-write\"><\/iframe>\n<\/div><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Displacement interactions among a wild population of long-tailed macaques on Tinjil Island, Indonesia. Without any obvious provocation from the dominant individual, the subdominant individual moves away from their line of approach, reducing the risk of confrontation.<\/em><br><br><em>Note that the designation \u201cdominant\u201d and \u201csubdominant\u201d relates to the two individuals having the interaction \u2013 we know nothing about the relative ranks of the other monkeys seen in the video clips. For instance, some of the individuals marked \u201csubdominant\u201d may be dominant to some of the other monkeys \u2013 but we don\u2019t know from this short video.<\/em><br><br><em>Also, we wouldn\u2019t be able to assign ranks after a single observation of displacement because the monkeys we\u2019re designating as subordinates could have moved away regardless of the \u201cdominants\u2019\u201c behaviour, but I happened to know this group of individuals since I has spent some time observing and filming them, and this was a recurring pattern of behaviour in these particular constellations of animals. Hence, I can confidently call their respective roles subdominant and dominant during the time of study.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>In general, the presence of an established dominance hierarchy in a stable group means that aggressive behaviour is minimized: most often there\u2019s limited need for it since the subordinate animals tend to yield resources to the dominant \u2013 often without them even showing low-level aggressive behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>That\u2019s not to say that rank-related aggressive behaviour is never shown within existing groups of animals; it is. During group composition changes or rank challenges we\u2019ll often see contact aggression resulting in injury. Once rank is established, ritualized threat displays or non-contact aggression  is typically more common. However, those aggressive behaviours typically constitute just a fraction of all dominance interactions &#8211; but unless you know what to look for, you\u2019ll miss the subtle avoidance behaviours shown by the subordinates.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In short, the existence of dominance hierarchies amongst animals living in stable social groups reduces the costs that would be involved if the animals had to fight over every single resource. Those costs incluce the risk of injury, reduced vigilance and therefore increased risk of predation, as well as energy- and time investments in lengthy and repeated aggressive bouts that could rather be spent on the other activities such as foraging, playing, grooming and mating. &nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Again, dominance in ethology \u2013 among animals &#8211; is not primarily about controlling the behaviours of others.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, from my perspective, trying to control the behaviour of a dog or a horse through force, and claiming that one is simply \u201cmimicking natural animal dominance behaviour\u201d, is faulty: such forceful approaches would be using the sociological rather than the ethological definition of the term, and a more correct label of that type of behaviour when directed towards animals would perhaps be <em>coercion<\/em>. This type of forceful control has, as far as I know, very little to do with how canids or equids exert dominance amongst themselves in established groups.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Rather, if we want to invoke the dominance concept as relevant with regards to how we care for animals, we might consider how to best distribute resources to a group of animals and ensure that we do that in a way so that those natural dominance interactions don\u2019t escalate to outright aggression.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If space is limited, for instance, subordinate individuals can\u2019t get displaced. And if they won\u2019t move away from a resource, the dominant individual might start showing low-level or even escalated aggressive behaviour. Since dominance amongst animals is about resource distribution, it\u2019s up to us as animal caregivers to distribute resources in a way that reduces the risk of escalated aggression.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Within <em>applied<\/em> ethology (using ethological principles to improve the quality of life of captive animals) we might do this along the following three lines of reasoning:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<ul>\n<li>Ensuring that there\u2019s enough resources to go around for everyone and then some \u2013 and in different locations. Animals typically won\u2019t share \u2013 we need to ensure that even the lowest ranking individuals can access those resources easily and out-of-sight of the dominant individuals, so feeding multiple animals simultaneously from the same bowl is often not a good idea. Dominance interactions tend to become exacerbated in captivity if space is limited (which it often is compared to how animals would group and distribute in the wild), so this is of tremendous importance.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Ensuring that available space, including three-dimensional space where relevant, is big enough and accessible to the animals so that subordinate individuals can safely show displacement behaviour to avoid escalation of conflict.<\/li>\n\n\n\n<li>Another approach is allowing the dominant individual\/s in a captive group to get exclusive access to a coveted toy or prized food, so that they can strut around and feel important, showing off. That will leave the less-coveted toys or food to the rest of the group. This can be a particularly effective way to reduce aggression around resources (because although they often <em>don\u2019t<\/em> control<em> the behaviour<\/em> of other individuals, dominant animals often tend to control others\u2019<em> access to coveted resources<\/em>). And by offering them an irresistible resource, they\u2019ll be so busy guarding that that all the other resources become available to the lower-ranking individuals of the group.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n<p>**saving some place here in case some benevolent reader has an image or video illustrating the strutting phenomenon that they&#8217;re willing to share&#8230;**<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And now, I\u2019ll get off that soapbox &#8211; let\u2019s return to those labels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Problem two: the Fundamental Attribution Error.<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>The second potential pitfall when using labels is that they might become detached from behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>We might say \u201dhe\u2019s lazy\u201d as if that explains<em> every single behaviour the animal shows.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>But behaviour is contextual, and using labels tends to sometimes remove us from the context. The label may also morph from being a shortcut when describing a specific behaviour in a specific context, to being used as a general personality trait.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And certainly, if we\u2019re dealing with unwanted behaviour, we need to understand it \u2013 and to understand such behaviours, we must never lose sight of the context in which it occurs.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>But what happens instead is that the label is seen as a trait, part of the animal\u2019s personality. And so many people who work as behavioural consultants often see pet owners using that label almost as an excuse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>As if it absolves them of the responsibility of addressing the problem behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>&nbsp;\u201dNothing I can do about that, he\u2019s so dominant!\u201d they may shrug and say, rather than realizing how a specific context triggers the unwanted behaviour in a particular situation \u2013 or how they might be contributing to the issue.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And here\u2019s the thing: <em>how we talk about the problem will influence how we solve the problem. <\/em>And by labelling, we risk stopping to look for the actual cause.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In other words, those labels risk getting in the way of finding solutions.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>We call this particular problem the <em>fundamental attribution error.<\/em> The tendency to under-estimate the importance of context in explaining an individual&#8217;s behavior, while over-emphasizing personality-based explanations.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"717\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1-1024x717.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7050\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1-1024x717.png 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1-300x210.png 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1-768x538.png 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1-1536x1075.png 1536w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/fundamental-attribution-error-1.png 1941w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>The fundamental attribution error: not realizing the importance of context in determining behaviour. Image from versusthemachines.com<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>So by labelling, one of the problems is that we risk the fundamental attribution error.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And of course, we do this with children too, all the time. Children are labelled <em>bad, mad<\/em> or <em>inad<\/em>, as in inadequate. Rather than understanding the importance of context, many frustrated parents tend to see their unruly behaviour as an unchangeable personality trait.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This leads us to the third problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Problem three: the Pygmalion \/ Rosenthal effect.<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>The self-fulfilling prophesy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If we immediately label what we think we\u2019re observing, that label will bias the observation; a self-fulfilling prophecy.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>We will see the things that confirm the label, and miss or ignore the things that don\u2019t confirm it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2024\/11\/pygmalion-negative.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"576\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2024\/11\/pygmalion-negative-1024x576.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7673\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2024\/11\/pygmalion-negative-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2024\/11\/pygmalion-negative-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2024\/11\/pygmalion-negative-768x432.jpg 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2024\/11\/pygmalion-negative.jpg 1280w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>The Pygmalion effect as it commonly applies to animal behaviour labels: If we have low expectations from our animals, we will see behaviours that confirm these expectations.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>This is a huge one, people.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Incidentally, it\u2019s also one reason why in certain areas of science, scientific studies need to be blinded, and also ideally include a placebo treatment.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Why? Because the moment that the researcher or the participant of the study know that they\u2019re getting a specific treatment, they subconsciously expect a specific outcome. And that expectation will not only impact the outcome through the intriguing powers of the placebo effect, but the <em>interpretation<\/em> of the results will also be skewed.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>But if the study is blinded (as in, the researchers or participants don\u2019t know who is getting which treatment), their observations will be more astute. And we include control groups also, to be able to tease out the effect of placebo alone as compared to the effect of placebo in combination with the actual treatment under study.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, if we need to resolve some type of unwanted behaviour in the animals in our care, it\u2019s useful to ditch the labels while exploring what\u2019s going on \u2013 in order to remain unbiased during observations and reducing the risk of proverbially barking up the wrong tree and implementing the wrong solution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For instance, some people may label their dog as dominant because he walks through the door first, and when he starts growling when they try to sit down next to him on the sofa, that confirms how dominant he is in their minds. When in fact, he has arthritis and the movement of the cushions as they plop down next to him is painful \u2013 hence the growling.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Oh, and incidentally, I have an extensive online course that goes into great detail on the topic of <a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/education\/courses\/resolving-challenging-behaviour\/\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noreferrer noopener\">Preventing and Resolving Unwanted Behaviour in Animals<\/a>, if you\u2019re interested in learning more. <\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Problem four: Mis-Labelling<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>The fourth potential pitfall of labelling is inadvertently ascribing the wrong label to a behaviour that in fact belongs to different context, and should wear a different label.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Perhaps we see a snarling dog, for instance.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>It might be a dominance-related behaviour; snarling could be part of an aggressive display.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Then again, the animal might be engaged in rough-and-tumble play; yes, snarling can occur during play in dogs, too.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, we might see snarling, and label the dog as showing \u201caggression\u201d, when in fact he\u2019s playing.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In fact, I think it\u2019s fair to say that many people mistake play for aggression. The play repertoire contains elements from the aggressive repertoire, but those responses are shown in a different order, they typically don\u2019t escalate, and competent players often show self-handicap when faced with a smaller opponent, as well as role reversal \u2013 the players typically take turns being \u201cvictim\u201d and \u201caggressor\u201d \u2013 unlike real aggression. There\u2019s also often meta-signals communicating the intent to play.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-scaled.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"683\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-1024x683.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7052\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-1024x683.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-768x512.jpg 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-1536x1024.jpg 1536w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/play-bow-aggression-2048x1366.jpg 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Mis-labelling. This animal is showing an affiliative meta-signal (a friendly play invitation), not aggressive behaviour.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>And we might handle a playful animal, an animal that is showing affiliative (friendly) behaviour, quite differently from how we\u2019d handle an animal showing agonistic (aggressive or dominance-related) behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In other words, mis-labelling is a risk, and we might sometimes be better off simply describing the behaviours and the context in which they occur, rather than risk attaching the wrong label to the behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The Behaviour Analytic Approach<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>For the above reasons, a behaviour analytic approach (looking closely at the immediate and preceding context surrounding the unwanted behaviour; describing the responses that the animal is showing without labelling them; and identifying the reinforcers that maintain the unwanted behaviour \u2013 or the punishers preventing the desired behaviour) has great value when it comes to understanding how problem behaviour is maintained.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>This approach reduces the risk of all these four pitfalls.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And indeed, every single behaviour analyst I\u2019ve met has had a stark aversion to labels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Since they typically work as behavioural consultants and help people resolve unwanted behaviours, they\u2019ve seen these how their clients fall prey to these pitfalls, and how these four labelling problems get in the way of finding the solution \u2013 or might have even contributed to, or exacerbated, the problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another argument against labelling is often brought forth by behaviour analysts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The \u201cCircular reasoning\u201d argument<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Here, we\u2019re entering a territory where I believe that labels have been taking undeserved criticism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Some people add another problem category to the four listed above, saying that &#8220;using labels is circular reasoning that is not scientifically verifiable.&#8221;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>I disagree.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Here\u2019s how the argument typically goes, through the example of an imaginary conversation:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201dMy dog is dominant.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cHow do you know?\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cBecause he bites.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cWhy does he bite?\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cBecause he\u2019s dominant\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And in one fell swoop, some people <em>dismiss all labels<\/em> &#8211; <em>as if they were all circular.<\/em> And while I don\u2019t doubt that they have encountered this type of circular reasoning, they\u2019re committing something akin to the fundamental attribution error by assuming that all labels are circular &#8211; rather than just some.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, that particular argument is a gross misrepresentation of the ethological use of labels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>To reiterate, within ethology we use labels as a shorthand for a group of observable behaviours in a set of contexts with a certain category of outcomes. So, the same conversation between two ethologists might be:<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201dMy dog is dominant over your dog.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201dHow do you know?\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cBecause he has priority of access to resource a, b, and c when they interact\u201d.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>What\u2019s not \u201dscientifically verifiable\u201d about that?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And how is that even circular?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>If a client says \u201cmy dog is dominant\u201d, we might choose to avoid labels altogether, or we might discuss what dominance really means and whether the observed behaviours would categorize under that label or not \u2013 and mention the potential pitfalls of using labels. Or \u2013 we might find a more useful label (keep reading for suggestions).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In my mind, labels have an undeservedly bad reputation amongst behaviour consultants, and I\u2019m thinking that it\u2019s most likely because their most vocal detractors don\u2019t know how useful they might be in certain situations \u2013 or they\u2019ve only seen them used badly (\u201cmy dog is so stubborn\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And I don\u2019t think we should judge the usefulness of a term or approach on the bad examples, neither should we unquestioningly accept the criticism of the label concept from people who don\u2019t know how to use it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>That would be like taking someone who says \u201dI\u2019ve tried that positive reinforcement thing, it doesn\u2019t work\u201d at his word..!<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another concern is that the potential benefits of labels get completely lost; I can\u2019t count the number of times I\u2019ve heard people completely dismiss them, saying things akin to \u201clabels are for cupboards\u201d and bending over backwards to avoid inadvertently using any type of label.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>I\u2019d much rather we had a discussion about useful versus harmful labels, instead of the \u201call labels must be avoided at all costs\u201d stance that I feel permeates much of the behaviour analytical and animal training community.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Some behaviour consultants may use the labels \u201cdistance-increasing\u201d or \u201cdistance-decreasing\u201d to describe behaviours, in order to help their client better understand the nature of the problem.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>And while I can see how that\u2019s a useful way to reframe reinforcers and punishers, as well as using labels that won\u2019t offend most hard-core behaviour analysts, I still find it lacking in information though. Take \u201cdistance-increasing\u201d for instance, that label might typically involve either fear-related or aggression-related emotional states. And I would expect the physiological state, perception, decision-making and behaviours to be different for those two emotional \/ mood states \u2013 and perhaps the interventions would be different too, at least if the aggression is based in frustration rather than fear, perhaps. So I would explore using emotion labels instead.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Mind shift: Intentionally using positive labels and emotion labels<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>To wrap up, let\u2019s dive into other arguments to explore the intentional use of labels &#8211; besides the ethological perspective.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>For instance, labels may be <em>negative<\/em> (\u201cmy dog is stupid\u201d), <em>positive<\/em> (\u201cmy dog is clever\u201d), or <em>toxic<\/em>, based on unfulfilled expectations (\u201cmy dog really should be better behaved by now\u201d).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Most of the arguments that I&#8217;ve seen against using labels involve examples where the label has a negative connotation (lazy, stupid, mean, stubborn). These negative labels carry emotional load; we think about the animal with negative connotations, falling prey to the Pygmalion effect and the Fundamental Attribution Error.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Removing the negative label and just describing the behaviour removes some of those negative connotations \u2013 and makes us more neutral observers. This is what many behaviour consultants suggest doing when dealing with unwanted behaviour in the animals in our care.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>But what about adding a positive label \u2013 wouldn\u2019t it do the opposite: add positive connotations, making us actively feel good about, and more invested in, the animal?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While we might possibly expect too much of an individual that we label as \u201csmart\u201d, these positive labels might contribute to our attachment to the individual and carry us through some difficult training. If we believe that our animal is smart, we will persist even if those first attempts fail &#8211; whereas if we thought the animal were stupid, we might just give up.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>In other words, we could intentionally use positive labels to trigger the Pygmalion effect: if we expect the animal to change his behaviour for the better, we will tend to actually notice those instances when the animal is making good choices \u2013 and be less likely to notice the poor choices.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/09\/pygmalion-positive-1.jpg\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1079\" height=\"607\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/09\/pygmalion-positive-1-edited.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7215\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/09\/pygmalion-positive-1-edited.jpg 1079w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/09\/pygmalion-positive-1-edited-300x169.jpg 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/09\/pygmalion-positive-1-edited-1024x576.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/09\/pygmalion-positive-1-edited-768x432.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1079px) 100vw, 1079px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Intentionally harnessing the Pygmalion effect: If we have high expectations from our animals, we will be more likely to see the behaviours that confirm these expectations.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>We might start by helping to reframe the animal\u2019s personality in the clients\u2019 minds by asking \u201cwhat do you most love about the animal?\u201d \u2013 this would be a way to find those positive labels and trigger the Pygmalion effect in more beneficial ways.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Another type of label that I think is useful are emotion labels. Labelling the animal as \u201cfearful\u201d or \u201canxious\u201d may help us identify which emotional needs are not being met, and will give us ideas of how to help bring about a change in the underlying mood state \u2013 very often helping the pessimistic animal become more optimistic (more labels!) is all that is needed in order for the animal to stop showing unwanted behaviour.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<figure class=\"wp-block-image size-large\"><a href=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful.png\"><img decoding=\"async\" loading=\"lazy\" width=\"1024\" height=\"564\" src=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful-1024x564.png\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-7055\" srcset=\"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful-1024x564.png 1024w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful-300x165.png 300w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful-768x423.png 768w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful-1536x847.png 1536w, https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/2\/2023\/05\/three-useful-one-harmful-2048x1129.png 2048w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><\/a><figcaption class=\"wp-element-caption\"><em>Negative labels are best avoided when trying to make sense of animal behaviour. However, positive labels, ethological labels and emotion labels may all be useful in certain contexts.<\/em><\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n<p>To summarize, rather than the sweeping blanket statement often used by behaviour analysts along the lines of \u201clabels won\u2019t help us resolve the unwanted behaviour\u201d, I would suggest to amend that to \u201cnegative labels won\u2019t help us resolve the unwanted behaviour \u2013 but ethological labels, emotion labels or positive labels might, in some cases\u201d &#8211; while keeping in mind the four risks involved when using said labels.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>So, these are my current thoughts on this topic. And now, over to you: do you agree? Have you seen the four problems \u2013 or some other problem not mentioned here? Have you used ethological, emotional or positive labels, and if so, when and how \u2013 and to what effect?<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>***<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>I write the occasional blog post and give online masterclasses, courses and webinars, all on the topic of animal behaviour, learning and wellbeing. If you\u2019re interested in hearing about what I\u2019m up to, sign up below and I\u2019ll keep you in the loop!<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p><strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Selected references:<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<p>Banerjee, Arunita, and Anindita Bhadra. &#8220;Time-activity budget of urban-adapted free-ranging dogs.&#8221; Acta Ethologica 25, no. 1 (2022): 33-42.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Benedetti, Fabrizio. \u201cPlacebo effects: understanding the mechanisms in health and disease.\u201d Oxford University Press, USA, 2021.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Jensen, Per. &#8220;The ethology of domestic animals 2nd edition: an introductory text.&#8221; Oxfordshire, CAB International (2009).<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Odendaal, J. S. J. (1997). \u201dAn ethological approach to the problem of dogs digging holes.\u201d <em>Applied Animal Behaviour Science<\/em>, 52(3-4), 299-305.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Paukner, Annika, and Stephen J. Suomi. &#8220;Sex differences in play behavior in juvenile tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella).&#8221;&nbsp;<em>Primates<\/em>&nbsp;49 (2008): 288-291.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Raudenbush, Stephen W. (1984). &#8220;Magnitude of teacher expectancy effects on pupil IQ as a function of the credibility of expectancy induction: A synthesis of findings from 18 experiments&#8221;. Journal of Educational Psychology. 76: 85\u201397.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Stafford, Richard, Anne E. Goodenough, Kathy Slater, William S. Carpenter, Laura Collins, Heather Cruickshank, Sarah Downing et al. &#8220;Inferential and visual analysis of ethogram data using multivariate techniques.&#8221; Animal Behaviour 83, no. 2 (2011): 563-569.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Young, Robert J. &#8220;The importance of food presentation for animal welfare and conservation.&#8221; Proceedings of the Nutrition Society 56, no. 3 (1997): 1095-1104.<a rel=\"noreferrer noopener\" href=\"#dominance\" target=\"_blank\"> D<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Many animal behaviour consultants abhor labels. They consider them not just pointless, but disastrous, and many of them wouldn\u2019t be caught dead using labels. &nbsp; You might think I\u2019m exaggerating for dramatic effect, and yes, I do have a penchant for hyperbole so it is entirely possible\u2026 but sometimes I do wonder.&nbsp; As an ethologist, [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[25,22,20,23],"tags":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/7043"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=7043"}],"version-history":[{"count":33,"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/7043\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":7675,"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/7043\/revisions\/7675"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=7043"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=7043"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/illis.se\/en\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=7043"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}